CHAPTER 9 Looking for the Facts – Good Reasoning Matters A Constructive Approach to Critical Thinking test bank

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CHAPTER 9
Looking for the Facts

Multiple Choice Questions

1. What kind of sentence is this?

“Apples are sweet.”

a) General claim
b) Universal claim
c) Proportional claim
d) Sample claim
e) None of the above

2. What kind of sentence is this?

“30 per cent of apples grown in the state of Washington are Red Delicious.”

a) General claim
b) Universal claim
c) Proportional claim
d) Sample claim
e) None of the above

3. What kind of sentence is this?

“All apples contain vitamin C.”

a) General claim
b) Universal claim
c) Proportional claim
d) Sample claim
e) None of the above

4. What kind of sentence is this?

“There is more vitamin C per gram in strawberries than there is in apples.”

a) General claim
b) Universal claim
c) Proportional claim
d) Sample claim
e) None of the above
5. What is the first thing you must consider in determining the suitability of a sample?
a) Its size
b) Its cost
c) Its availability
d) The variety of its components
e) None of the above

6. A strong argument against a generalization must show that strong reasoning does not support the conclusion allegedly established by the generalization. This can be done ________.
a) by showing that the sample of Xs in question is not characterized by the property alleged Y
b) by showing that the sample of Xs was selected randomly
c) by showing that the sample of Xs does not accurately reflect the group
d) both A and B
e) both A and C

7. One context in which generalizations play an important role is ________.
a) arguments about genealogy
b) military promotions
c) polling
d) elections
e) none of the above

8. Which of the following is NOT an aspect we need to identify before deciding whether a poll is a reasonable generalization?
a) The sample: the group of people polled—who they are and how many of them there are
b) The population sampled: the larger group to which the sample belongs and is deemed to be representative of
c) The property in question: the opinion or characteristic studied in the poll about which a conclusion has been drawn
d) The pollster: The individual or company responsible for the poll
e) All of the above need to be considered.

9. Good arguments from polling are strong arguments that have the following form:
Premise 1: S is a sample of Xs.
Premise 2: ________.
Conclusion: Proportion 2 of Xs are Y.

where:
Xs are the population—the group of people about whom the conclusion is drawn.
Y is the property the people in the population are said to have.
Sample S is the sample of people studied.
Proportion 1 and Proportion 2 are the proportion of people in the sample and the population who are said to have property Y.

Which of the following is the best representation of the missing premise (Premise 2)?
a) Proportion 1 of Ys in S are X.
b) Proportion 1 of Xs in S are Y.
c) Proportion 1 of Ss in X are Y.
d) Proportion 2 of Xs in Y are S.
e) None of the above

10. We say that the poll contains a measurement error if which of the following kinds of questions cannot be answered satisfactorily?
a) How reliable is the information collected about the measured property?
b) What kinds of questions were asked?
c) How were the results of the immediate questions interpreted?
d) Were the questions or answers affected by biases (of wording, timing, sponsors, etc.)?
e) Any of the above

11. Which of the following do we need to consider when assessing the strength of a polling argument?
a) Whether the individuals polled have the properties in question to the extent claimed
b) Whether the sample is free of sampling errors
c) Whether the sample is free of measurement errors
d) Both A and C
e) All of the above

12. General causal arguments attempt to establish what kind(s) of claims?
a) General causal claims
b) Universal causal claims
c) Particular causal claims
d) Both A and B
e) Both A and C

13. Two kinds of causal conditions play a role in general causal reasoning. A ________ is a causal factor that must be present if an event is to occur.
a) correlative cause
b) con¬stant condition
c) variable condi¬tion
d) composite cause
e) none of the above

14. The event or condition we designate as the cause is the ________, that is, the condition that brings about the effect.
a) correlative cause
b) con¬stant condition
c) composite cause
d) variable condi¬tion
e) none of the above

15. An event’s ________ is the set of constant and/or variable conditions that produce the event.
a) con¬stant condition
b) variable condi¬tion
c) composite cause
d) correlative cause
e) none of the above

16. Identify the premise missing from the general causal argument scheme.
Premise: X is correlated with Y.
Premise: The correlation between X and Y is not due to chance.
Premise: Y is not the cause of X.
Conclusion: X causes Y.

a) Premise: X is correlated with Z.
b) Premise: The correlation between X and Y is not due to wishful thinking.
c) Premise: The correlation between X and Y is not due to an optical illusion.
d) Premise: The correlation between X and Y is not due to some mutual cause Z.
e) Premise: X causes Y.

17. In which of the following cases are we justified to say that there is a correlation between X and Y?
a) When we can demonstrate that X and Y are similar in more than two ways
b) When we can demonstrate that X and Y are regularly connected
c) When we can demonstrate that X and Y are caused by a third event
d) When we can demonstrate that X and Y are totally independent from each other
e) All of the above

True or False Questions

1. Counter-schemes reject a particular instance of a scheme by arguing that it fails to meet the conditions necessary for good instances of that scheme.

2. Generalizations are, by definition, based on an incomplete survey of the evidence.

3. General claims (Xs are, in general, Y) are not as strong as their universal counterparts (All Xs are Ys).

4. All arguments based on generalizations should be rejected.

5. Samples that are too small are unreliable and more likely to be affected by pure chance.

6. Anecdotal evidence is a reliable source of evidence.

7. Bias is never problematic when generalizations are made about groups of people.

8. We can summarize our discussion of generalizations by defining good generalizations as strong arguments (i.e. with acceptable, relevant, and sufficient premises) that con¬form (implicitly or explicitly) to the following scheme:
Premise 1: S is a sample of Xs.
Premise 2: Proportion 1 of Xs in S are Y.
Conclusion: Proportion 2 of Xs are Y.

9. In ordinary reasoning, you need to consider the kinds of things that are being sampled in order to decide whether a particular sample of them is reasonable and unbiased.

10. Generalizations are often presented in implicit ways in ordinary argument.

11. If a sample is large enough, you need not worry about sampling errors.

12. The higher the margin of error, the more accurately the views of those surveyed match those of the entire population.

13. A comprehensive account of the composite cause of some event is difficult to produce, for most events are the result of a complex web of causal rela¬tionships and a number of constant and/or variable conditions.

14. The only key to a good argument for the general claim “X causes Y” is a demonstration that X and Y are regularly connected.

15. Every causal relationship implies the existence of a correlation between two events, X and Y, and the existence of a correlation does in itself guarantee a causal relation¬ship.

Short Answer Questions

1. What are “empirical” argument schemes?

2. Why should you be careful when dealing with generalizations?

3. What does it mean for a sample used for generalizations to be biased?

4. What is a generalization? How can a generalization be strong or weak?

5. What is the preferred means of sample selection? How does one make sure to have such a sample?

6. Does the existence of a correlation between two events guarantee a causal relationship? Explain.

7. What do we need to show in order to establish that X causes Y through a good general causal argument?

Short Answer Questions

1. Empirical argument schemes are schemes that we apply to “empirical” or “factual” issues. We use them when we are looking to establish “facts” about the world: what causes certain things to happen, or how individuals or groups think or behave. (p. 226)

2. In everyday life, we are inclined to make generalizations without a good sample. Often this is because our generalizations rely on “anecdotal evidence,” which con¬sists of informal reports of incidents that have not been subjected to careful scrutiny. You should be wary of such generalizations, which are often based on a few instances that may have been embellished and slanted according to the prejudices of those who proffer them. (p. 229)

3. In a sample used for generalizations, a bias is some way in which the individuals in the sample differ from other individuals in the larger group specified in the generaliza¬tion. A common source of bias is a natural tendency to generalize from the situations with which we are familiar without asking whether these situations are representative. (p. 230)

4. Generalization is the process of moving from specific observations about some indi¬viduals within a group to general claims about members of the group. Generalizations can be the basis for universal, general, or proportional claims. A strong generalization shows
1. That the individuals in the sample have some property Y; and
2. That the sample is good—i.e., that it is (a) of reasonable size and (b) free of bias.
A good counter-argument to generalization shows that one or more of these criteria is not met. (pp. 231–2)

5. The preferred means of sample selection is one that is random. A sample is “ran¬dom” if every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. (p. 236)

6. Every causal relationship implies the existence of a correlation between two events, X and Y, but the existence of a correlation does not in itself guarantee a causal relation¬ship. The assumption that this is the case is the most common error made in causal reasoning. The problem is that an observed correlation may be attributable to other factors. Most notably, it may be the result of simple chance or of some third event, Z, which really causes Y or causes both X and Y and is referred to as a “second” cause. (p. 243)

7. General causal reasoning attempts to establish general causal principles that govern causes and effects. A good general causal argument is an argument that establishes that X causes Y (where X is a variable condition or a composite cause) by showing:
1. That there is a correlation between X and Y;
2. That this correlation is not the result of mere coincidence;
3. That there is no second cause, Z, that is the cause of Y or of both X and Y; and
4. That Y is not the cause of X. (p. 245)